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ULTRASOUND 

Ultrasound is safe and painless, and produces pictures of the inside of the body using sound waves. Ultrasound imaging, also called ultrasound scanning or sonography, involves the use of a small transducer (probe) and ultrasound gel placed directly on the skin. High-frequency sound waves are transmitted from the probe through the gel into the body. The transducer collects the sounds that bounce back and a computer then uses those sound waves to create an image. Ultrasound examinations do not use ionizing radiation (as used in x-rays), thus there is no radiation exposure to the patient. Because ultrasound images are captured in real-time, they can show the structure and movement of the body's internal organs, as well as blood flowing through blood vessels.

Ultrasound imaging is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions.

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What are the benefits vs. risks?

Benefits

  • Most ultrasound scanning is noninvasive (no needles or injections).

  • Occasionally, an ultrasound exam may be temporarily uncomfortable, but it is almost never painful.

  • Ultrasound is widely available, easy-to-use and less expensive than other imaging methods.

  • Ultrasound imaging is extremely safe and does not use any ionizing radiation.

  • Ultrasound scanning gives a clear picture of soft tissues that do not show up well on x-ray images.

  • Ultrasound is the preferred imaging modality for the diagnosis and monitoring of pregnant women and their unborn babies.

  • Ultrasound provides real-time imaging, making it a good tool for guiding minimally invasive procedures such as needle biopsies and fluid aspiration.

Risks

  • For standard diagnostic ultrasound, there are no known harmful effects on humans.

VASCULAR STUDIES

Vascular studies are a noninvasive (the skin is not pierced) procedure used to assess the blood flow in arteries and veins. A transducer (like a microphone) sends out ultrasonic sound waves at a frequency too high to be heard. When the transducer is placed on the skin at certain locations and angles, the ultrasonic sound waves move through the skin and other body tissues to the blood vessels, where the waves echo off of the blood cells. The transducer picks up the reflected waves and sends them to an amplifier, which makes the ultrasonic sound waves audible.

 

Reasons for vascular studies

Reasons for which vascular studies may be performed include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Evaluation of signs and symptoms which may suggest decreased blood flow in the arteries and/or veins of the neck, legs, or arms

  • Evaluation of previous procedures that were performed to restore blood flow to an area

  • Evaluation of a vascular dialysis device, such as an A-V fistula in the arm

There may be other reasons for your doctor to recommend a vascular study.

CLINICAL LABORATORY

A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the health of a patient as pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.

 

The following is a detailed breakdown of the responsibilities of each unit:

  • Microbiology receives almost any clinical specimen, including swabs, feces, urine, blood, sputum, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, as well as possible infected tissue. The work here is mainly concerned with cultures, to look for suspected pathogens which, if found, are further identified based on biochemical tests. Also, sensitivity testing is carried out to determine whether the pathogen is sensitive or resistant to a suggested medicine. Results are reported with the identified organism(s) and the type and amount of drug(s) that should be prescribed for the patient.

  • Parasitology is a microbiology unit that investigates parasites. The most frequently encountered specimen here is faeces. However, blood, urine, sputum, and other samples may also contain parasites.

  • Hematology works with whole blood to do full blood counts, and blood films as well as many other specialised tests.

  • Coagulation requires citrated blood samples to analyze blood clotting times and coagulation factors.

  • Clinical Biochemistry usually receives serum or plasma. They test the serum for chemicals present in blood. These include a wide array of substances, such as lipids, blood sugar,enzymes, and hormones.

  • Immunology/Serology uses the concept of antigen-antibody interaction as a diagnostic tool. Compatibility of transplanted organs is also determined.

  • Urinalysis tests urine for many analytes. 

ECG

An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) is a test that checks for problems with the electrical activity of your heart. An EKG translates the heart's electrical activity into line tracings on paper. The spikes and dips in the line tracings  are called waves.

The heart is a muscular pump made up of four chambers . The two upper chambers are called atria, and the two lower chambers are called ventricles. A natural electrical system  causes the heart muscle to contract and pump blood through the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body.

Why It Is Done

An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) is done to:

  • Check the heart's electrical activity.

  • Find the cause of unexplained chest pain, which could be caused by aheart attack, inflammation of the sac surrounding the heart (pericarditis), or angina.

  • Find the cause of symptoms of heart disease, such as shortness of breath, dizziness, fainting, or rapid, irregular heartbeats (palpitations).

  • Find out if the walls of the heart chambers are too thick (hypertrophied).

  • Check how well medicines are working and whether they are causing side effects that affect the heart.

  • Check how well mechanical devices that are implanted in the heart, such as pacemakers, are working to control a normal heartbeat.

  • Check the health of the heart when other diseases or conditions are present, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, cigarettesmoking, diabetes, or a family history of early heart disease.

X-RAY

An x-ray (radiograph) is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. Imaging with x-rays involves exposing a part of the body to a small dose of ionizing radiation to produce pictures of the inside of the body. X-rays are the oldest and most frequently used form of medical imaging.

 

The chest x-ray is the most commonly performed diagnostic x-ray examination. A chest x-ray produces images of the heart, lungs, airways, blood vessels and the bones of the spine and chest.

 

A bone x-ray makes images of any bone in the body, including the hand, wrist, arm, elbow, shoulder, spine, pelvis, hip, thigh, knee, leg (shin), ankle or foot.

 

What are the benefits vs. risks?

Benefits

  • No radiation remains in a patient's body after an x-ray examination.

  • X-rays usually have no side effects in the typical diagnostic range for this exam.

  • X-ray equipment is relatively inexpensive and widely available in emergency rooms, physician offices, ambulatory care centers, nursing homes and other locations, making it convenient for both patients and physicians.

  • Because x-ray imaging is fast and easy, it is particularly useful in emergency diagnosis and treatment.

Risks

  • There is always a slight chance of cancer from excessive exposure to radiation. However, the benefit of an accurate diagnosis far outweighs the risk.

  • The effective radiation dose for this procedure varies. 

  • Women should always inform their physician or x-ray technologist if there is any possibility that they are pregnant. 

2D ECHO

An echocardiogram is a noninvasive (the skin is not pierced) procedure used to assess the heart's function and structures. During the procedure, a transducer (like a microphone) sends out ultrasonic sound waves at a frequency too high to be heard. When the transducer is placed on the chest at certain locations and angles, the ultrasonic sound waves move through the skin and other body tissues to the heart tissues, where the waves bounce or "echo" off of the heart structures. These sound waves are sent to a computer that can create moving images of the heart walls and valves.

 

Reasons for the procedure

An echocardiogram may be performed for further evaluation of signs or symptoms that may suggest:

  • Atherosclerosis. A gradual clogging of the arteries over many years by fatty materials and other substances in the blood stream that can lead to abnormalities in the wall motion or pumping function of your heart. 

  • Cardiomyopathy. An enlargement of the heart due to thickening or weakening of the heart muscle

  • Congenital heart disease. Defects in one or more heart structures that occur during formation of the fetus, such as a ventricular septal defect (hole in the wall between the two lower chambers of the heart).

  • Congestive heart failure. A condition in which the heart muscle has become weakened to an extent that blood cannot be pumped efficiently, causing fluid buildup (congestion) in the blood vessels and lungs, and edema (swelling) in the feet, ankles, and other parts of the body.

  • Aneurysm. A dilation of a part of the heart muscle or the aorta (the large artery that carries oxygenated blood out of the heart to the rest of the body), which may cause weakness of the tissue at the site of the aneurysm.

  • Valvular heart disease. Malfunction of one or more of the heart valves that may cause an abnormality of the blood flow within the heart.

  • Cardiac tumor. A tumor of the heart that may occur on the outside surface of the heart, within one or more chambers of the heart (intracavitary), or within the muscle tissue (myocardium) of the heart.

  • Pericarditis. An inflammation or infection of the sac that surrounds the heart.

An echocardiogram may also be simply performed to assess the heart’s overall function and general structure.

There may be other reasons for your doctor to recommend an echocardiogram.

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